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: ''Not to be confused with Recorded history or History of the Earth. For the study and teaching of world history, see World history and Historiography. For further reading, see Prehistory. For history of life on earth, see Evolutionary history of life. For other uses, see History of the world (disambiguation).'' The history of the world (or world history) describes the history of humanity (or human history) as determined by the study of archaeological and written records. Ancient recorded history begins with the invention of writing.〔According to David Diringer ("Writing", ''Encyclopedia Americana'', 1986 ed., vol. 29, p. 558), "Writing gives permanence to men's knowledge and enables them to communicate over great distances.... The complex society of a higher civilization would be impossible without the art of writing."〕〔Webster, H. (1921). (''World history'' ). Boston: D.C. Heath. (Page 27 ).〕 However, the roots of civilization reach back to the earliest introduction of primitive technology and culture. Prehistory begins in the Paleolithic Era, or "Early Stone Age," which is followed by the Neolithic Era, or New Stone Age, and the Agricultural Revolution (between 8000 and 5000 BCE) in the Fertile Crescent. The latter period marked a change in human history, as humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals.〔Bellwood, Peter. (2004). ''First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies'', Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20566-7〕〔Cohen, Mark Nathan (1977) ''The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02016-3.〕 Agriculture advanced, and most humans transitioned from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle as farmers in permanent settlements. Nomadism continued in some locations, especially in isolated regions with few domesticable plant species;〔See Jared Diamond, ''Guns, Germs and Steel''.〕 but the relative security and increased productivity provided by farming allowed human communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by advances in transportation. As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labor to store food between growing seasons. Labor divisions then led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the development of cities. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of writing and accounting. Many cities developed on the banks of lakes and rivers; as early as 3000 BCE some of the first prominent, well-developed settlements had arisen in Mesopotamia, on the banks of Egypt's River Nile, Indus River valley, and major rivers in China.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=The Ancient Dynasties )〕〔Yun Kuen Lee, "Building the Chronology of Early Chinese History". ''Asian Perspectives: the Journal of Archaeology for Asia and the Pacific'', Vol. 41, 2002.〕 The history of the Old World (particularly Europe and the Mediterranean) is commonly divided into Ancient history (or "Antiquity"), up to 476 AD; the Postclassical Era (or "Middle Ages"〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Internet Medieval Sourcebook Project )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies )〕), from the 5th through 15th centuries, including the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE – c. 1258 CE) and the early Italian Renaissance (beginning around 1300 CE);〔Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), (''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy'' ), trans S.G.C Middlemore, republished in 1990 ISBN 0-14-044534-X〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=''The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: The Renaissance (1902) )〕 the Early Modern period, from the 15th century to the late 18th, including the Age of Enlightenment; and the Late Modern period, from the Industrial Revolution to the present, including Contemporary History. The ancient Near East,〔William W. Hallo & William Kelly Simpson, ''The Ancient Near East: A History'', Holt Rinehart and Winston Publishers, 1997〕〔Jack Sasson, ''The Civilizations of the Ancient Near East'', New York, 1995〕〔Marc Van de Mieroop, ''History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000–323 BC.'', Blackwell Publishers, 2003〕 ancient Greece, and ancient Rome figure prominently in the period of Antiquity. In the history of Western Europe, the fall in 476 CE of Romulus Augustulus, by some reckonings the last western Roman emperor, is commonly taken as signaling the end of Antiquity and the start of the Middle Ages. By contrast, Eastern Europe saw a transition from the Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire, which did not decline until much later. In the mid-15th century, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of modern printing,〔(【引用サイトリンク】url=http://www.open2.net/historyandthearts/discover_science/gberg_synopsis.html )〕 employing movable type, revolutionized communication, helping end the Middle Ages and ushering in the Scientific Revolution.〔Grant, Edward. The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996.〕 By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology, especially in Europe, had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution.〔More; Charles. ''Understanding the Industrial Revolution'' (2000) (online edition )〕 Outside the Old World, including ancient China〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Ancient Asian World )〕 and ancient India, historical timelines unfolded differently. However, by the 18th century, due to extensive world trade and colonization, the histories of most civilizations had become substantially intertwined (see Globalization). In the last quarter-millennium, the rates of growth of population, knowledge, technology, commerce, weapons destructiveness, and environmental degradation have greatly accelerated, creating opportunities and perils that now confront the planet's human communities.〔British astrophysicist and Astronomer Royal Martin Rees says: "Throughout history our ancestors have confronted risks: pestilence, storms, earthquakes and human-induced disasters. But this century is different. It's the first when one species, ours, can determine the planet's future, threaten our civilization and jeopardize the existence of future generations." Martin Rees, interviewed by Erin Biba, "An Apocalypse Think Tank", ''Scientific American'', vol. 312, no. 6 (June 2015), p. 26.〕〔"Climate change," writes Yale University economics professor William D. Nordhaus, "has become the premier environmental () facing the globe. Carbon dioxide... emissions continue to grow and accumulate in the atmosphere," despite the Kyoto Protocol and subsequent well-meaning international efforts to curb that growth. The cause of their failure, explains Nordhaus, is the working of the psycho-socio-economic mechanism of the "free ride", a variant of the "tragedy of the commons" whereby an individual or organization maximizes its own economic advantage by contributing little or nothing to a collective effort—in this case, the common effort to stop the growth of greenhouse gases. Nordhaus proposes an incentive to neutralize the perverse "free ride" mechanism: the creation of a Climate Club whose member countries would agree to implement a minimum domestic price per ton of carbon dioxide produced; non-member countries that do not share in the burden of emissions reductions would be penalized via uniform percentage tariffs on their imports into the club region. "A Climate Club," writes Nordhaus, "that ensures high prices of carbon emissions around the world, or the equivalent, is an essential step toward an effective policy to slow () warming." The Club proposal, which Nordhaus concedes may be utopian, begs the question of whether the member countries' electorates would permit the blocking of importation of cheap foreign-made goods. William D. Nordhaus, "A New Solution: the Climate Club" (a review of Gernot Wagner and Martin L. Weitzman, ''Climate Shock: The Economic Consequences of a Hotter Planet'', Princeton University Press, 250 pp, $27.95), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol. LXII, no. 10 (4 June 2015), pp. 36–39.〕 ==Prehistory== 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「history of the world」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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